І. В. Корунець порівняльна типологія англійської та української мов навчальний посібник Видання друге, доповнене й перероблене вінниця нова книга

contrariety протилежність/несумісність, disulpate (jurid.) виправдовувати, disenable робити нездатним/скалічити, forthright чесний, brumal зимовий (сплячка), inter-agent посередник (агент), licit законний/дозволений, lacerate рвати (калічити, нівечити), malediction прокляття, malefactor лиходій/злочинець, etc. Bookish only in Ukrainian are властолюбство/властолюбний, power ambition/power ambitious, возз'єднання reunification, всесилля unrestricted power, консеквентний consequent, конфіденціальний confidential, людомор assassin/man-slayer, etc.

Many word-groups and words having a bookish nature (both semantic, stylistic and lingual) in the contrasted languages are actually internationalisms originating from one common source language. Eg: emanation еманація, Hellenic еллінський, macaronic макаронічний, macaronism макаронізм, etc.

b) Poetic words and expressions form a stylistically common, though semantically not always coinciding subgroup of lexicon in English and Ukrainian as well. Poetic words split into two clearly distinguished groups: a) words/word-groups displaying their poetic nature already at language level, i.e. when singled out and b) words/word-groups acquiring their poetic tinge in a micro- or macrotext only. Thus, the following English words and word-groups are always poetic: affright (frighten), Albion (England), Caledonia (Scotland), adore (to worship), anarch (leader of an uprising/revolt), babe (baby), harken (hear), shrill (shriek), steed (horse), mash (admire), the Bard of Avon (Shakespeare), pass away (die), uncouth (strange), ye (you), the mam (ocean), the brow (forehead), the Kane (cow), etc.

Similarly in Ukrainian whose poetisms are sometimes distinctly marked by their slightly archaic nature or by their Old Slav origin: вольний, враг, злото, дівчинонька, козаченько, кормига (ярмо), криця (крицевий), лжа (неправда), літа (роки), перса, чоло, etc.

Poetic words of the second subgroup (which acquire their poetic tinge in a micro/macrocontext) may often be traditional in a national language. Thus, in English stylistically marked poetic word-groups can be found in Shakespeare's works: simple truth, gilded honour, purest faith, right perfection (Sonnet 66), youthful morn (66), swept love (56), hungry

137

ocean, immortal life (81), sacred beauty (115), boundless sea (65) cf. in Ukrainian: безмежнеє море. A considerable number of word-groups have also acquired a similar traditionally poetic flavour in Ukrainian due to our folk songs: гора крем'яная, літа молодії, орел сизокрилий, сива зозуля, світ широкий, синє море, чисте поле, чорнії брови, карії очі, червона калина, and others.

Apart from these there are some more common minute groups of stylistically marked words and word-groups in English and Ukrainian lexicons. The main of them are as follows: 1. Archaisms, i. e. old forms of words/word-groups, which are mainly used in poetic works or in solemn speech: algazel (gazelle), avaunt (out), batoon (baton), dicacity (talkativeness, mockery), eke (also), gyves (fetters), mere (pond, lake), a micle (much), parlous (perilous), per adventure (probably, perhaps), well nigh (almost, nearly), thee (you sg.), thou (you pl.), thy (your), ye (you), yonder (there), hereto (to this matter), therefrom (from that), therein (in that place), thereupon (upon that), whereof (of which). To this group also belong some participles ending in - en: a sunken ship, a drunken/drunk man, a shorn lamb; adverbs and set expressions as oft (often), all told, i.e. all counted, etc. The most frequently used archaisms in Ukrainian are as follows: бард (Боян, поет), брань (битва), глас (голос), град (місто), гаківниця (гармата), комоні (коні), пахолок (прислужник), спудей (студент), ланіти (щоки), гостиниця (готель), глагол (слово), рать (військо, битва), пііт (поет), списник (мечник, лучник), колчан (чохол для стріл), and also: ректи, зримо, воздвигати, вражий, лжа, много, узріти, очіпок, копа (шістдесят снопів, яєць), півкопи (тридцять), вершок, гони, лікоть (міри довжини); медок (напій), кваша (страва) and several others.

Apart from the above-mentioned there exist in both contrasted languages (and not only in them) some other typologically isomorphic classes of lexical units. Among these a prominent place belongs to words singled out on the basis of their informational structure/capacity. Accordingly, two types of such words are traditionally distinguished:

1. Denotative words, which constitute the bulk of each language's lexicon and include the so-called nomenclature words and word-groups, which are various terms and professionalisms of unique meaning. For


138

example, electron, motor, miner, tongs, outer space, specific weight, bus, tailor, football, etc. Similarly in Ukrainian where these notionals are the same: електрон, мотор, шахтар, обценьки, реактор, вертоліт, твід, швець, футбол, питома вага, космічний простір, etc.

Most denotative words (and not only in the contrasted languages) are stylistically neutral. The latter may be represented by the whole lexico-grammatical classes such as: pronouns (he, she, we, you) and numerals (five, ten, twenty), most of verbs (be, live, love), nouns (mother, sister, cow, horse), adjectives (blue, white, old, fat, urban, rural, young) and all adverbs (today, soon, well, slowly, then, there) and some others.

2. Many words in English and Ukrainian may also have both denotative and connotative meanings. Thus, the nouns bear, fox, pig, goose, parrot, rat and some others in their stylistically neutral meaning designate definite animals or birds, but when metonymically reinterpreted, they often acquire a vituperative (abusive) connotation. Correspondingly in Ukrainian: свиня, тхір, собака, папуга, лисиця, корова (коровисько), бицюра, вівця, баран, жаба, ворона /ґава/.

2. Connotative words/word-groups directly or indirectly correlate with their natural denotata, eg: Albion (poet, for England), the Bard of Avon (Shakespeare); Кобзар (Т. Shevchenko), Каменяр (I. Franko), дочка Прометея (Lesia Ukrainka) and some other.

Connotative may become poetisms and neologisms: foe for enemy, kine for cow, dough (slang) for money, mods for admirer of jazz, know-how for skill, chicken (coll.) for baby (lovely boy or girl). Or in Ukrainian: чоло (поет.) лоб, макітра (low colloquial) -голова, рокер (neologism) любитель рок-музики, попса (low quality pop-music or songs), порнуха (pornographic film, performance), etc.

Stylistically marked in both contrasted languages are three more groups of lexical units:

1) ameliorative words: daddy, mummy, sissie, chivalrous, gentleman; матуся, татуньо, дідунь, козаченько, серденько, голівонька; 2) pejorative (лайливі) words: bastard, blackguard, clown, knave; байстрюк, нікчема, негідник, покидьок, головоріз, etc.; 3) constantly neutral words and word-groups/expressions, eg.: smith, geometry, teacher, love, you, he, all, гімнастика/фізкультура,

139

історія, вчитель, коваль, любити, ненавидіти, я, ти, ми, п'ять, десять, тут, там and a lot others.

Of isomorphic nature in the contrasted languages and certainly universal is one more distinctive feature of lexicon, which finds its expression in the existence of such semantic classes of words as synonyms and antonyms. Synonymous words (and expressions) are semantically similar but different in stylistic use lexical units. There are distinguished in English, Ukrainian (and in other languages):

synonymous nouns as end, close, termination, conclusion, finish, terminus, stopping; in Ukrainian: кінець, закінчення, зупинка, etc.

synonymous adjectives as conclusive, ending, final, terminal, completing, ultimate; in Ukrainian: кінцевий, останній, заключний, etc.

synonymous verbs as the following: act, play, perform, rehearse, star, mimic, imitate, enact, play a part; in Ukrainian: діяти, виконувати, відігравати, брати участь, грати, etc.

synonymous adverbs: surprisingly, unexpectedly, unawares, plump, pop, suddenly, and in Ukrainian: раптово, зненацька, негадано, як сніг на голову, etc.

Antonyms as, for example: lateness - earliness, freedom - slavery; work - play, continue - stop, beautiful - ugly, good - bad, quickly -slowly, up - down, etc.

In Ukrainian like in other languages there are also synonymous and antonymous meanings of different words, i.e. parts of speech. These may be:

nouns: огорожа/горожа, паркан, штахети, тин, живопліт, лиса; or: балакун, говорун, баляндрасник, торохтій, базікало, талалай;

adjectives: безмежний, безкраїй, безконечний, неосяжний, безмірний, неозорий;

verbs: бити, батожити, періщити, дубасити, лупити, лупцювати, гилити;

adverbs: швидко, скоро, прудко, бистро, хутко, шпарко, жваво, прожогом.

Apart from synonyms there are also antonyms: висота - низина; гора - долина; створювати - руйнувати; знаходити - губити; хвалити - гудити; високий - низький; багатий - бідний, гладкий - худий, гарно

140

- погано, швидко - повільно, високо - низько, тепло - холодно, весело — сумно, etc.

Onomasiological and Semasiological Characteristics of Different Units of Lexicon

Irrespective of the lexico-grammatical class to which a word belongs, it may be characterised in the contrasted languages from two sides: a) from its onomasiological side, i.e. from its structure and nomination capacity and b) from its semasiological or content side.

The onomasiological characteristics of a word are displayed through its morphological structure and its categorial (if any) meaning. Thus, the verb goes (the root go + es inflexion) has the categorial meanings of person, tense, aspect and voice, whereas the noun songs (song + s inflexion) has only the category of number (singular and plural).

From the semasiological side words may be monosemantic or polysemantic. The semantic structure of the bulk of English nouns, for example, is richer than that of the Ukrainian nouns. Thus, the English noun boat can mean човен, судно/корабель, шлюпка; the noun coat in English can mean верхній одяг, пальто, піджак, кітель, хутро (тварин), захисний шар фарби на предметі.

Ukrainian words may sometimes have a complicated semantic structure as well. For example, the noun подорож may mean cruise, journey, travel, trip, tour, voyage; or the word ще may mean still, yet, as yet, more, any more, again, else, but.

Isomorphic if not universal is also the existence of monosemantic words which are sometimes represented by a whole lexico-grammatical class, as it is in case of all pronouns, numerals, conjunctions and various nomenclature words (terms). For example: we, she, nobody, ten, thirty, and, or, atom, oxygen, sugar, today; він, вони, десять, перший, і/та, чи, кисень, цукор, сьогодні, торік, etc.

Common in the contrasted languages are also other means of nomination, which can be of two types: a) inner means and b) outer (borrowed) means, which can be separate morphemes, words, word-groups and even separate sentences.

141

The inner means of nomination include: 1) morphemes; 2) words; 3) phrases/word-groups and 4) sentences.

Words in all languages constitute the main means of nomination. Thus, in English and Ukrainian they constitute about 75 % of all nominations Structurally they may be: a) simple words (book, boy, new, alone, be, this, known, ten, there, soon; книжка, хлопець, новий, сам, знати, п'ять, скоро, там, добре, etc.); b) compound words (blackboard, classroom, homework, schoolboy, steamship, railway, etc.). Or in Ukrainian: добродій, легковажити, літописець, книголюб, мовознавець, першочергово, перекотиполе, лиходій, чортзнащо, Білогородка, Незовибатько, Добридень, Панібудьласка, etc.

Very productive in present-day English but rare in present-day Ukrainian is the wholophrasal compounding; cf. break-through, sit-in, commander-in-chief, merry-go-round and occasionalisms like a to-be-or-not-to-be question, a don't-beat-me-or-I-shall-cry expression (on his face), etc. Compounds of this type belong to rare stylistic exotisms in Ukrainian. Cf. Наталка "теє того як його" (І. Котляревський), Грицько "чи то я, чи не я" (Г.Тютюнник), "Йосип з гроша здачі" (Б. Харчук). Common and equally productive in the contrasted languages is the nomination by means of word-groups and sentences (usually nominative): fine weather гарна погода, take part брати участь, throw light проливати світло. The rain. The welcome rain. (Longfellow) Вечір. Ніч. (Тичина). These same sentences are nominative in English: Twilight. Night. Nominative sentences may also be extended in both contrasted languages. Cf. A lady's chamber in Bulgaria in a small town near the Dragoman Pass late in November in the year 1885. (B. Shaw) Мокрий сніг, дощі і тумани, тумани. (М. Стельмах).

The onomasiological and semasiological status and structure of words may be changed in the contrasted languages by affixal morphemes as can be seen from the following words: miss - dismiss, elect - reeled, man — mankind, relation — relationship; Київ — киянин — київський, переможний - переможений - непереможний, вибори - перевибори — довибори — виборний — виборчий, післявиборчий, etc.

The prosodic means, especially accent, can sometimes greatly influence the onomasiological and semasiological status of words in English

142

and Ukrainian as well. This can be seen from the following words:б'conduct (n) - con'duct (v);б'mankind - man'kind;'замок - за'мок, за'няття - заня'ття, 'колос - ко'лос, пере'їзд - пе'реїзд, ко'рови -коро'ви, 'вівці - вів'ці,'руки - ру'ки,'поперек - попе'рек, etc.

A considerable number of semasiologically identical English lexemes often have different onomasiological/structural expression in Ukrainian and vice versa, eg: akimbo — (тримати) руки в боки/взявшись руками в боки; to ski — їздити/ходити на лижвах; to skate — їздити на ковзанах; закохатися/покохати — to fall in love, зрячий — one who can see/one who is not blind; награтися — to play to one's heart's content, реготати - to laugh very loudly, etc.

Genuine internationalisms, naturally, maintain their complete identity of semasiological and onomasiological structures in both contrasted languages, cf.: basis, comedy, drama, biology, parliament, student, transport, opera, the heel of Achilles, sword of Damocles, tabula rasa, finita la comedia; базис, комедія, драма, парламент, опера, ахіллесова п'ята, табула раса,дамоклів меч, фініта ла комедія (справі кінець), etc.

Other borrowings, which do not have the status of internationalisms, mostly maintain their semasiological and onomasiological structure in the source languages and in the borrowing languages. This can be seen from the Turkic or German borrowings in Ukrainian (cf. башлик, баштан, кавун, могорич, хабар, чабан; бинт, лазарет, бухгалтер, бляхар, цех, фельдшер, дах, стільвага, стельмах, деко, etc).

The general correlation of borrowed lexical units as compared with their use in spoken contrasted languages is far from equal, however. Its percentage in English is over 70 % and in Ukrainian only ab. 10 % of their universal lexicons.

Among other common features of lexicon testifying to its systemic arrangement are the common types of motivation, the main of which in English, Ukrainian and in many other languages are three: phonetical, morphological and semantic by nature.

1. All phonetically motivated words have their sounding structure somewhat similar to the sounds which they convey. Due to this, some of these English, Ukrainian and other languages' words thus motivated sound

143

almost or quite alike. For example: to cade - кудкудакати, cock-a-doodle-doo — кукуріку, bang — бух/бухнути, bark - гав/гавкати, buzz - дзижчати, chirp/chirrup - цвірінькати, cuckoo - кукукати/ кукувати, crack — трісь/тріщати, gagle - ґелґотати, hey! — гей!, hiss - шипіти/сичати, hoop - 'гукати (сигналити), howl - вити, smack (one's lips) цмокати, moo - мукати, mewl - нявкати, baa / ba:/ бе-е, бекати (вівці), etc.

These are naturally far from all the words whose notional meaning in the contrasted languages is based on sound imitation. Nevertheless, their number in comparison to other types of motivated words is not large, constituting in English about 1.08 % and in Ukrainian only about 0.8 %.

2. The morphological motivation in the contrasted languages remains the major one. It is characteristic of numerous notional words, in which it is clearly indicated by the affixal morphemes. For example, by suffixes: doer one who does smth; flyer one who flies; detainee one who is detained; examinee one who is examined; changable that which is subjected to change/can be changed; movable smth. that can be moved, etc. A similar function may be performed by some prefixal morphemes in both contrasted languages. Cf.: asleep the one who is in the state of sleeping; bedew to cover with dew; overturn to turn smth. over; ex-president the one who was president, etc.

Similarly in Ukrainian: оповідач той, хто оповідає/розповідає; писар той, хто пише; співець той, хто співає; ношений якого (що) носили; смажений якого (що) смажили; читаючий який читає, носач той, що має великого носа; митець той, хто творить якийсь вид мистецтва (швидко чи дуже якісно/майстерно) малює, будує, співає, танцює; злітати підніматися вище попереднього місця перебування; переказати (щось) розповісти вдруге вже раз сказане чи написане; передісторія історія, що була перед цією/відомою історією; вчетверте те, що повторюється четвертий раз; поверх (чогось) - щось понад чимсь чи додатково до чогось, etc.

Compound words are either morphologically or semantically motivated in the contrasted languages. All morphologically motivated compounds have their component lexical meaning composed of lexical meanings pertaining to each of their parts, eg: air-crew is a crew of an aircraft;

144

after-effect effect that occurs after some action; to blackboard to write on a black board. Similarly in other words as good-neighbourhood being near good neighbours, classroom (room for classes or for schoolchildren), drawbridge, halfpenny, landowner, minethrower (thrower of mines), note-book (book for notes), self-defence, a schoolboy, Zululand (land of the Zulus), etc. Their meaning is also made by their component parts. Or in Ukrainian: вільнодумець (думає про волю), добродійник (робить добро), домовласник (володіє домом), електродояр, кожум'яка (мне шкуру тварин), кораблеводіння, користолюбство (любить корисливість), лизогуб (облизує губи), лісовод, маслоробня, марнотратство (витрата чогось без користі, марно), etc.

Morphologically motivated words in the contrasted languages naturally constitute the largest part of their motivated lexicons: 88,5 % in English and 91.8 % in Ukrainian.

3. Semantic motivation of lexical units is displayed by the figurative/ connotative meaning of words or phrases, representing the transferred meanings of their denotata. This is expressed by many semantically motivated words and word-groups in both contrasted languages. Cf. foot of a mountain підніжжя гори, hand/hands of a watch стрілка/стрілки (схожі на руки) годинника, to keep house вести домашнє господарство, an ancient house стародавній рід (династія); the house of Tudor династія Тюдорів; the first/second house перший/другий сеанс (у кінотеатрі); bed of roses легке/розкішне життя; bed of a river русло річки; bed of honour поле бою; arm рука, but: secular arm світська влада; the arm of the law сила закону; the arm of the sea вузька затока; the arms of a coat рукава (піджака, пальта); the arms of a tree великі гілляки дерева; the arms of a chair бильця (крісла), a coat of arms герб, etc.

Many similar examples of semantic motivation of words are also observed in Ukrainian: легка/важка рука (дегко/дошкульно б'є), легкий/ важкий на руку, липкі руки/липкий на руку (злодій); купатися в розкошах, купатися в славі/купатися в промінні південного сонця, братися за справу (діло), etc. Their meanings are very transparent and mostly need no further explanation.

145

Some words denoting in the contrasted languages popular names of flowers, trees, birds, and animals have a transparent etymological motivation as well. Thus, in English and Ukrainian bluet (flower) is васильок, bluebell is дзвоник, blue-bottle is васильок which is blue (синій), blackbird is чорний дрізд, blackcock is тетерук, black berry means ожина, horse-tail/cat's tail means хвощ, redwood means секвоя, umbrella-tree means американська магнолія, violet means фіалка. More similar examples may also be found in English and Ukrainian: жовтець (yellow gold), чорниця (bilberry), чорнобривці (French marigold), чорногуз (чорне гузно), чорнослив (smocked prunes), соняшник (sunflower), куцохвостий (заєць), круторогі (воли), серпокрилець (стриж).

A brilliant example of etymological semantic motivation present in Ukrainian and Byelorussian (or Polish) names of months. Cf. січень (сніг січе), лютий (мороз лютує), березень (береза сік пускає), квітень (перші квіти - проліски з'являються і зацвітають), липень (липа зацвітає), серпень (серпами жали і жнуть збіжжя), etc.

Semantic motivation may be observed in idiomatic expressions as well. Cf. not to have a farthing (не мати копійки/шеляга за душею); not for time or money/not for the world (ні за що в світі/ні за які гроші), cold war/paper war; to bare resemblance; to make both ends meet; like two drops of water; не знати ні бе ні ме (ні кукуріку); хоч з мосту та в воду; язик до Києва доведе; наговорити сім кіп/мішків гречаної вовни to say (talk) much nonsense; хмари згущуються (над кимось); ходячі мощі, ходяча енциклопедія, etc.

Semanticallу motivated lexical units constitute in English about 10 % and in Ukrainian about 7.4 % of their total motivated lexicons. Generally, however, a great many words in English, Ukrainian and in other languages have no clear motivation, i. e. their etymology remains obscure, far from explicable at present. It has been lost in the course of semantic development of these words. As a result, one can not say why the "sun" is named the sun and the "head" or the "heart" have been named this way and not otherwise. Because of the obscure etymology most words and some collocations/idiomatic expressions remain non-motivated in the contrasted languages. In other words, their motivation is impossible to identify nowadays on the basis of their componental meanings.

146